Dietary Magnesium Intake in Relation to Depression in Adults: A GRADE-Assessed Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-analysis of Epidemiologic Studies.
We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis exploring how dietary magnesium (Mg) intake connects with depression among adults. By reviewing data from over 63,000 individuals, we found that those with the highest magnesium intake had a 34% lower chance of experiencing depression compared to those with the lowest intake.
Furthermore, our analysis indicated that every increase of 100 mg per day in magnesium intake was linked to a 7% reduced risk of depression. These findings suggest that increasing dietary magnesium could play a valuable role in lowering depression risk.
Read More
8
Magnesium levels linked to depression
Associations between magnesium depletion score and depression among individuals aged 20 to 60 years.
This study examined how magnesium deficiency relates to depression in adults aged 20 to 60. By using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data from 2005 to 2018, we analyzed the magnesium depletion score (MDS) while assessing depression through the Patient Health Questionnaire-9.
Our findings reveal a positive association: as the MDS increases, so does the likelihood of depression. Each one-unit rise in MDS raises the odds of depression. However, results varied with different MDS levels. While these results are promising, further research is necessary to understand the underlying mechanisms better.
Read More
8
Magnesium lowers depressive symptoms
Elevated C-Reactive Protein Levels Modify the Effect of Magnesium on Depressive Symptoms: A Population-Based Study.
We examined the role of magnesium levels in relation to depressive symptoms through a comprehensive analysis of data from Taiwan's Nutrition and Health Survey. Involving 2,196 participants, we employed logistic and linear regression methods to assess these relationships.
Our findings revealed that higher magnesium levels correlated with fewer depressive symptoms. Interestingly, this connection was stronger in individuals with elevated C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, suggesting that inflammation influences how magnesium affects mood.
Overall, maintaining adequate magnesium levels might be beneficial, especially for those dealing with inflammation.
Read More
Most Useful Reviews
9
Effective depression relief
69 people found this helpful
I take it to relieve symptoms of depression. I'm surprised by the clear effects; I had a terrible experience in psychiatry and prefer controlling my mental state with magnesium now. It’s critical not to exceed 300mg daily since I’ve read that long-term use of ineffective psychotropic medications can shorten life expectancy. I feel empowered with magnesium and find it more effective than psychosomatic treatments.
Read More
9
Positive feelings restored
33 people found this helpful
I spent many years at a psychosomatic medicine clinic for depression, but taking three tablets daily has made me feel refreshed and more positive. I stopped the psychosomatic treatments as I feel a noticeable difference with this approach. I appreciate that the ingredients are based on natural nutrients, leading to a reduced risk of side effects compared to pharmaceuticals.
Read More
9
Mood significantly improved
20 people found this helpful
I bought this product due to its reputation for aiding menopausal symptoms. It has effectively cured my depression and irritability, leaving me feeling much better. I'm amazed that a small amount of magnesium could have such a positive impact. Given my previous irritability affecting my family, this has been immensely helpful. The pills are slightly large but are manageable when chewed beforehand.
Combined oral supplementation with magnesium plus vitamin D alleviates mild to moderate depressive symptoms related to long-COVID: an open-label randomized, controlled clinical trial.
We explored the effectiveness of magnesium coupled with vitamin D in easing depressive symptoms among individuals with long-COVID. Our study involved 60 participants suffering from mild to moderate depression, hypomagnesemia, and vitamin D deficiency.
Over four months, those who received both magnesium and vitamin D showed significant improvements in their depression scores compared to those who only took vitamin D. Specifically, a notable 73% of the magnesium group achieved significant relief, positioning this combination as a promising treatment for depression linked to long-COVID.
Mild side effects were noted but did not lead to any withdrawals, indicating the safety of this treatment option.
Read More
9
Magnesium intake reduces depression risk
Dietary Magnesium Intake in Relation to Depression in Adults: A GRADE-Assessed Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-analysis of Epidemiologic Studies.
We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis exploring how dietary magnesium (Mg) intake connects with depression among adults. By reviewing data from over 63,000 individuals, we found that those with the highest magnesium intake had a 34% lower chance of experiencing depression compared to those with the lowest intake.
Furthermore, our analysis indicated that every increase of 100 mg per day in magnesium intake was linked to a 7% reduced risk of depression. These findings suggest that increasing dietary magnesium could play a valuable role in lowering depression risk.
Read More
8
Magnesium linked to lower depression risk
Association between nutrient patterns and odds of depressive symptomatology: a population-based cohort of older adults followed during 15-y.
We examined how various nutrient patterns affect depressive symptoms in older adults through a detailed study involving over 1,000 participants.
By evaluating nutrient intake and depressive symptoms over more than 15 years, we found that those with a diet high in magnesium and several other nutrients had significantly lower odds of experiencing depressive symptoms.
This suggests that nutrients, particularly magnesium, might play a crucial role in supporting mental health in older adults.
Read More
8
Magnesium deficiency correlates with depression
Magnesium depletion score and depression: a positive correlation among US adults.
This study examined the relationship between magnesium deficiency, measured by the Magnesium Depletion Score (MDS), and depression among U.S. adults. We analyzed data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, focusing on those with moderate to severe depression.
Our findings revealed a significant link—higher MDS scores led to an increased risk of depression. Specifically, for each unit rise in MDS, the chance of developing depression increased by 13%. Interestingly, those with severe magnesium deficiency saw a staggering 58% rise in depression likelihood. This suggests that improving magnesium levels could be beneficial for both preventing and treating depression.
Read More
8
Magnesium levels linked to depression
Associations between magnesium depletion score and depression among individuals aged 20 to 60 years.
This study examined how magnesium deficiency relates to depression in adults aged 20 to 60. By using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data from 2005 to 2018, we analyzed the magnesium depletion score (MDS) while assessing depression through the Patient Health Questionnaire-9.
Our findings reveal a positive association: as the MDS increases, so does the likelihood of depression. Each one-unit rise in MDS raises the odds of depression. However, results varied with different MDS levels. While these results are promising, further research is necessary to understand the underlying mechanisms better.
I take it to relieve symptoms of depression. I'm surprised by the clear effects; I had a terrible experience in psychiatry and prefer controlling my mental state with magnesium now. It’s critical not to exceed 300mg daily since I’ve read that long-term use of ineffective psychotropic medications can shorten life expectancy. I feel empowered with magnesium and find it more effective than psychosomatic treatments.
Read More
9
Positive feelings restored
33 people found this helpful
I spent many years at a psychosomatic medicine clinic for depression, but taking three tablets daily has made me feel refreshed and more positive. I stopped the psychosomatic treatments as I feel a noticeable difference with this approach. I appreciate that the ingredients are based on natural nutrients, leading to a reduced risk of side effects compared to pharmaceuticals.
Read More
9
Mood significantly improved
20 people found this helpful
I bought this product due to its reputation for aiding menopausal symptoms. It has effectively cured my depression and irritability, leaving me feeling much better. I'm amazed that a small amount of magnesium could have such a positive impact. Given my previous irritability affecting my family, this has been immensely helpful. The pills are slightly large but are manageable when chewed beforehand.
Read More
7.5
Depression relief noted
17 people found this helpful
I purchased this as the initial step in treating my bipolar disorder nutritionally. I've found that my depression is relieved and my head feels clearer. Currently, even with a daily intake of five tablets, I am experiencing no side effects.
Read More
9
Immediate comfort felt
16 people found this helpful
Salvation from depression! Eye twitching or fingers twitching? Sleep problems? This is all due to a lack of magnesium! This magnesium is chelated for better absorption. I take it in conjunction with Lecithin and Omega-3. Although the tablets are large and can be hard to swallow without water, I’ve experienced a significant improvement in both my sleep and anxiety levels. I feel calm, and this magnesium effectively helps control nervous tics.
Depression is a common and serious mental health condition characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and a lack of interest or pleasure in activities that were once enjoyable. It can affect anyone, regardless of age, gender, or background, and it goes beyond just feeling down; it can interfere significantly with daily life, impacting relationships, work performance, and overall well-being. Symptoms of depression may include changes in appetite or weight, sleep disturbances, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, and thoughts of worthlessness or suicide.
The causes of depression are complex and may involve a combination of genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors. While it's a serious condition that can be debilitating, the good news is that it is treatable. Various treatment options are available, including therapy, medication, lifestyle changes, and support groups. If you or someone you know is struggling with depression, seeking help from a healthcare professional is a crucial step toward recovery.
Magnesium is a chemical element with the symbol Mg and atomic number 12. It is a lightweight, silvery-white metal that is a member of the alkaline earth metals group. Often classified as one of the most abundant elements in the Earth's crust, magnesium plays a crucial role in various biological functions and is essential for living organisms. In nature, magnesium can be found in large quantities, primarily in minerals such as dolomite and magnesite, and it is also present in seawater.
In terms of health benefits, magnesium is vital for numerous metabolic processes, including energy production, DNA synthesis, and muscle function. It contributes to bone health, helps regulate blood pressure, and supports bone formation by promoting the effects of vitamin D. The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for magnesium varies by age and gender, but it is generally important to include magnesium-rich foods like leafy greens, nuts, seeds, and whole grains in your diet to ensure adequate intake. For those who may not receive enough magnesium through their diet alone, supplements are also available; however, it is advisable to consult a healthcare professional before starting any supplementation.
Recent research suggests that magnesium may play a role in managing symptoms of depression, though the exact mechanisms are not fully understood. Magnesium is essential for numerous biochemical processes in the body, including neurotransmitter function and hormonal regulation. Some studies have indicated that low magnesium levels are associated with a higher incidence of depression and that supplementation might improve mood and reduce anxiety in some individuals. However, it is important to note that while magnesium could potentially support mental health, it should not replace conventional treatments like therapy or medication, especially for severe depression.
If you're considering magnesium supplementation as a part of your wellness routine, it’s always wise to consult with a healthcare professional. They can help you assess your specific needs, including dietary intake and any potential interactions with medications you may be taking. In addition, magnesium can be found in various dietary sources like leafy greens, nuts, seeds, and whole grains, which can contribute to a holistic approach to mental health. Overall, while magnesium may offer some benefits, it should be viewed as a complementary option rather than a primary treatment strategy for depression.
Based on user reviews, the timeframe for seeing results from this magnesium supplement for depression varies among users but typically ranges from one day to two weeks. Several users reported significant improvements within just a few days of starting the supplement. For instance, one reviewer noted feeling a good night’s sleep and alleviated depression-like symptoms from the first day of taking the magnesium Read Review. Another user experienced a marked improvement in mood within a week to ten days, indicating a quick response to the supplement Read Review.
Other users also highlighted noticeable changes after two weeks of consistent use, suggesting that while some may experience immediate relief, others may require a little more time for the full effects to manifest. For example, a user noted that after two weeks of taking the magnesium at night, their mood improved significantly Read Review. Overall, it appears that while individual experiences may vary, many users find relief from their depressive symptoms within a relatively short period of starting the supplement.
Recent scientific investigations indicate that magnesium could be a potential ally in the fight against depression. Several studies have shown a significant association between low magnesium levels and increased risk of depressive symptoms. For instance, research suggests that higher magnesium depletion scores correlate with an increased likelihood of depression, with each unit increase raising the risk by approximately 13% [4]. Furthermore, a systematic review indicated that individuals consuming higher magnesium diets had a 34% lower chance of experiencing depression compared to those with lower intake [8].
Additionally, specific combinations of magnesium with other nutrients have demonstrated promising results. A study focusing on magnesium and vitamin D revealed significant improvements in depressive symptoms among long-COVID patients, underscoring magnesium's potential therapeutic benefits in certain populations [3]. Other trials have explored underlying connections between magnesium and depression, with findings suggesting that maintaining adequate levels might help alleviate depressive symptoms, particularly in individuals already dealing with inflammatory conditions [10]. Overall, while more research is warranted to fully understand the mechanisms at play, current findings paint a positive picture for magnesium's role in managing depression.
Users have reported a range of improvements in their depressive symptoms after incorporating magnesium supplements into their routines. Many individuals have found relief from feelings of depression, anxiety, and irritability, often within a remarkably short period. For instance, one user described experiencing a notable uplift in mood and reduction of depressive episodes after just a few days of use, feeling "refreshed and more positive" Read Review. Another noted that their perspective on life had significantly improved, expressing feelings of calmness and emotional resilience after beginning supplementation Read Review.
Moreover, several users mentioned the supplement’s positive influence on sleep quality, which plays a crucial role in emotional well-being. One individual indicated that their sleep issues, along with depressive symptoms, were alleviated from the very first day of taking magnesium Read Review. Another found an improvement in mood within two weeks, highlighting the importance of consistent usage for achieving full benefits Read Review. While personal experiences can vary widely, it appears many users have benefited significantly from magnesium supplementation in managing their depressive symptoms.
Users have reported positive outcomes when combining magnesium supplements with other nutrients or supplements for managing depression. One individual mentioned using magnesium alongside Lecithin and Omega-3, noting significant improvements in sleep and anxiety levels, leading to a calmer state of mind overall Read Review. Another user found relief from their depressive symptoms after integrating magnesium with DMAE, indicating a better mood upon waking compared to previous experiences Read Review. These combinations appear to enhance the effectiveness of magnesium in alleviating depressive symptoms, suggesting that users may find greater control over their mental health through such complementary approaches.
In addition to these combinations, several reviews emphasized the importance of magnesium's natural properties, which can sometimes provide a more effective alternative to traditional pharmaceuticals. Users have expressed appreciation for the reduced side effects and better absorption offered by chelated forms of magnesium Read Review. Overall, the integration of magnesium with other supplements seems to be a favored strategy for users aiming to manage their depression more holistically.
Users report varying doses of magnesium for treating depression, with many finding success within a range of 100mg to 300mg daily. One user highlighted the importance of not exceeding 300mg per day due to concerns over potential long-term risks associated with psychotropic medications, indicating this as a critical amount for maintaining mental stability (Read Review). Others noted improvements at lower dosages, with several users experiencing significant mood enhancements and better sleep quality by taking around 100mg daily, especially in the form of magnesium glycinate (Read Review).
Additionally, some users have adjusted their intake based on their specific needs; for example, one reported a beneficial effect from taking two tablets of magnesium glycinate before bed, while another found relief with up to five tablets per day without experiencing side effects (Read Review). Overall, user experiences suggest that while there isn't a one-size-fits-all dosage, staying within the ranges noted—particularly around 200mg to 300mg—appears to be effective for many in managing symptoms of depression.
7.5
Better sleep quality
5 people found this helpful
From the first day, I noticed I was getting a good night's sleep. Even waking up in the night, I could quickly fall back asleep. It also alleviated depression-like symptoms, which is why I'm giving it to my son, who deals with May blues.
9
Improved calmness
5 people found this helpful
An excellent drug! I took it after experiencing severe depression following childbirth. Within a week to ten days, sleep normalised, cramps disappeared, and I felt significantly calmer, which was crucial for me as a mother of three. The only caveat is to manage to place the pill under the tongue and swallow with ample water quickly, or the taste is rather unpleasant.
9
Improved mood
High Absorption Magnesium for depression is a great product! I’ve been taking it at night for two weeks now, along with DMAE. I used to wake up feeling very depressed, but now I find I'm waking in a better mood. I truly believe this product has made a difference!
9
Positive feelings restored
33 people found this helpful
I spent many years at a psychosomatic medicine clinic for depression, but taking three tablets daily has made me feel refreshed and more positive. I stopped the psychosomatic treatments as I feel a noticeable difference with this approach. I appreciate that the ingredients are based on natural nutrients, leading to a reduced risk of side effects compared to pharmaceuticals.
7.5
Trial success
37 people found this helpful
Wonderful results! I purchased this magnesium after hearing about its efficacy for depression. It also relieved constipation and eyelid spasms that I had for about a month. Increasing my dose led to immediate relief from spasms, and my emotional resilience to small issues has improved dramatically.
9
Immediate comfort felt
16 people found this helpful
Salvation from depression! Eye twitching or fingers twitching? Sleep problems? This is all due to a lack of magnesium! This magnesium is chelated for better absorption. I take it in conjunction with Lecithin and Omega-3. Although the tablets are large and can be hard to swallow without water, I’ve experienced a significant improvement in both my sleep and anxiety levels. I feel calm, and this magnesium effectively helps control nervous tics.
9
Effective magnesium
2 people found this helpful
I rely heavily on magnesium for my daily well-being. After trying multiple brands, I find Doctor Best's chelated magnesium lysinate glycinate to be the most effective. Its enhanced absorption has improved my sleep quality, reduced anxiety and depression, and alleviated headaches. The noticeable improvements in my overall health have prompted me to recommend this product to others. I'm grateful to have returned to this magnesium as a vital part of my health regimen.
9
Effective depression relief
69 people found this helpful
I take it to relieve symptoms of depression. I'm surprised by the clear effects; I had a terrible experience in psychiatry and prefer controlling my mental state with magnesium now. It’s critical not to exceed 300mg daily since I’ve read that long-term use of ineffective psychotropic medications can shorten life expectancy. I feel empowered with magnesium and find it more effective than psychosomatic treatments.
7.5
Helps with inflammation
2 people found this helpful
An excellent magnesium product that calms the body. It's a magnesium supplement with glycine, beneficial for relaxation, mood improvement, inflammation relief, and enhancing conditions related to depression. Magnesium glycinate is well-absorbed and should be taken at night before bed for its soothing properties. The package contains 120 capsules, each with 100mg of Magnesium Glycinate.
7.5
Depression relief noted
17 people found this helpful
I purchased this as the initial step in treating my bipolar disorder nutritionally. I've found that my depression is relieved and my head feels clearer. Currently, even with a daily intake of five tablets, I am experiencing no side effects.
8
Magnesium deficiency correlates with depression
Magnesium depletion score and depression: a positive correlation among US adults.
This study examined the relationship between magnesium deficiency, measured by the Magnesium Depletion Score (MDS), and depression among U.S. adults. We analyzed data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, focusing on those with moderate to severe depression.
Our findings revealed a significant link—higher MDS scores led to an increased risk of depression. Specifically, for each unit rise in MDS, the chance of developing depression increased by 13%. Interestingly, those with severe magnesium deficiency saw a staggering 58% rise in depression likelihood. This suggests that improving magnesium levels could be beneficial for both preventing and treating depression.
9
Magnesium intake reduces depression risk
Dietary Magnesium Intake in Relation to Depression in Adults: A GRADE-Assessed Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-analysis of Epidemiologic Studies.
We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis exploring how dietary magnesium (Mg) intake connects with depression among adults. By reviewing data from over 63,000 individuals, we found that those with the highest magnesium intake had a 34% lower chance of experiencing depression compared to those with the lowest intake.
Furthermore, our analysis indicated that every increase of 100 mg per day in magnesium intake was linked to a 7% reduced risk of depression. These findings suggest that increasing dietary magnesium could play a valuable role in lowering depression risk.
9.5
Magnesium and Vitamin D effective for depression
Combined oral supplementation with magnesium plus vitamin D alleviates mild to moderate depressive symptoms related to long-COVID: an open-label randomized, controlled clinical trial.
We explored the effectiveness of magnesium coupled with vitamin D in easing depressive symptoms among individuals with long-COVID. Our study involved 60 participants suffering from mild to moderate depression, hypomagnesemia, and vitamin D deficiency.
Over four months, those who received both magnesium and vitamin D showed significant improvements in their depression scores compared to those who only took vitamin D. Specifically, a notable 73% of the magnesium group achieved significant relief, positioning this combination as a promising treatment for depression linked to long-COVID.
Mild side effects were noted but did not lead to any withdrawals, indicating the safety of this treatment option.
8
Magnesium lowers depressive symptoms
Elevated C-Reactive Protein Levels Modify the Effect of Magnesium on Depressive Symptoms: A Population-Based Study.
We examined the role of magnesium levels in relation to depressive symptoms through a comprehensive analysis of data from Taiwan's Nutrition and Health Survey. Involving 2,196 participants, we employed logistic and linear regression methods to assess these relationships.
Our findings revealed that higher magnesium levels correlated with fewer depressive symptoms. Interestingly, this connection was stronger in individuals with elevated C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, suggesting that inflammation influences how magnesium affects mood.
Overall, maintaining adequate magnesium levels might be beneficial, especially for those dealing with inflammation.
References
Serefko A, Lachowicz-Radulska J, Szopa A, Herbet M, Czylkowska A, et al. The Novel Imipramine-Magnesium Complex Exerts Antidepressant-like Activity in Mice Subjected to the Forced Swim Test and the Tail Suspension Test. Molecules. 2025;30. doi:10.3390/molecules30030519
Bardinet J, Pouchieu C, Chuy V, Merle B, Pellay H, et al. Association between nutrient patterns and odds of depressive symptomatology: a population-based cohort of older adults followed during 15-y. Eur J Nutr. 2025;64:88. doi:10.1007/s00394-025-03597-x
Rodríguez-Morán M, Guerrero-Romero F, Barragán-Zuñiga J, Gamboa-Gómez CI, Weyman-Vela Y, et al. Combined oral supplementation with magnesium plus vitamin D alleviates mild to moderate depressive symptoms related to long-COVID: an open-label randomized, controlled clinical trial. Magnes Res. 2024;37:49. doi:10.1684/mrh.2024.0535
Zhao W, Jin H. Magnesium depletion score and depression: a positive correlation among US adults. Front Public Health. 2024;12:1486434. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1486434
Carnegie RE, Zheng J, Borges MC, Jones HJ, Wade KH, et al. Micronutrients and Major Depression: A Mendelian Randomisation Study. Nutrients. 2024;16. doi:10.3390/nu16213690
Cai Z, She J, Liu X, Li R, Guo S, et al. Associations between magnesium depletion score and depression among individuals aged 20 to 60 years. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2024;86:127543. doi:10.1016/j.jtemb.2024.127543
Strodl E, Bambling M, Parnam S, Ritchie G, Cramb S, et al. Probiotics and magnesium orotate for the treatment of major depressive disorder: a randomised double blind controlled trial. Sci Rep. 2024;14:20841. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-71093-z
Hajhashemy Z, Shirani F, Askari G. Dietary Magnesium Intake in Relation to Depression in Adults: A GRADE-Assessed Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-analysis of Epidemiologic Studies. Nutr Rev. 2025;83:217. doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuae056
Abdelmoneam AH, Khafagy GM, Elbeh KA, Hasan MDA. Impact of Magnesium and Ferritin Deficiency on Depression Among Adolescent Students. J Prim Care Community Health. 2024;15:21501319241252570. doi:10.1177/21501319241252570
Chou MH, Yang YK, Wang JD, Lin CY, Lin SH. Elevated C-Reactive Protein Levels Modify the Effect of Magnesium on Depressive Symptoms: A Population-Based Study. Nutrients. 2023;15. doi:10.3390/nu15071560
Chou MH, Yang YK, Wang JD, Lin CY, Lin SH. The Association of Serum and Dietary Magnesium with Depressive Symptoms. Nutrients. 2023;15. doi:10.3390/nu15030774
Li Z, Chen K, Shao Q, Lu H, Zhang X, et al. Nanoparticulate MgH ameliorates anxiety/depression-like behaviors in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis by regulating microglial polarization and oxidative stress. J Neuroinflammation. 2023;20:16. doi:10.1186/s12974-023-02696-y
Wang H, Jin M, Xie M, Yang Y, Xue F, et al. Protective role of antioxidant supplementation for depression and anxiety: A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. J Affect Disord. 2023;323:264. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.11.072
Saba S, Faizi F, Sepandi M, Nehrir B. Effect of short-term magnesium supplementation on anxiety, depression and sleep quality in patients after open-heart surgery. Magnes Res. 2022;35:62. doi:10.1684/mrh.2022.0503
Abiri B, Sarbakhsh P, Vafa M. Randomized study of the effects of vitamin D and/or magnesium supplementation on mood, serum levels of BDNF, inflammation, and SIRT1 in obese women with mild to moderate depressive symptoms. Nutr Neurosci. 2022;25:2123. doi:10.1080/1028415X.2021.1945859
Miller ES, Sakowicz A, Roy A, Wang A, Yang A, et al. Is peripartum magnesium sulfate associated with a reduction in postpartum depressive symptoms?. Am J Obstet Gynecol MFM. 2021;3:100407. doi:10.1016/j.ajogmf.2021.100407